What causes cervical cancer?

Cervical cancer is most often caused by persistent infection with a high-risk type of human papillomavirus, or HPV. HPV is common and is usually cleared by the immune system, but a persistent high-risk infection can cause cell changes in the cervix that may progress over time.

HPV can be passed through intimate skin-to-skin contact, including sexual contact. Most HPV infections do not become cancer. When a high-risk infection remains in cervical cells, it can interfere with the normal controls that regulate cell growth. Precancerous changes may develop before invasive cancer, often without noticeable symptoms. Smoking, a weakened immune system, and limited access to cervical screening can make persistent infection or cell changes harder to identify and manage, but none of these factors alone proves that cancer is present.

Follow the cervical screening schedule recommended for you, even if you feel well. Screening can detect high-risk HPV or abnormal cervical cells before cancer develops. HPV vaccination helps protect against important high-risk types and may be offered according to local guidance. If a test is abnormal, attend the recommended follow-up; this may involve repeat testing, examination of the cervix, or a biopsy. Avoid smoking and tell your clinician about medicines or conditions that affect immunity.

Arrange a medical assessment for bleeding after sex, bleeding between periods or after menopause, unusual vaginal discharge, or persistent pelvic pain. These symptoms have many possible causes and do not by themselves diagnose cervical cancer. Seek urgent help for heavy bleeding, faintness, severe pain, or fever. Keep screening and follow-up appointments even when there are no symptoms.

Am I due for cervical screening? What did my HPV or cervical cell result mean? What follow-up is recommended and when? Would HPV vaccination be appropriate for me? Which symptoms should prompt an earlier review?